It adopted scientific rationalism and intellectual superiority as measures for the development of its people, as well as a symbol of their rise. Furthermore, it insisted on the adoption of pragmatic utilitarianism, sometimes influenced by British utilitarian philosophy, and at other times in its distorted form, as its proponents preferred to call it. The American philosopher John Dewey proposed a reformist pragmatism, rejecting foreign elements like individualism and narrow utilitarianism, as well as the idea that "the ends justify the means." Dewey aimed to present a pragmatism that differed from its predecessors in the breadth of its utilitarian values and its narrow framework, seeking to expand its scope to include society as a whole, viewing it as a progressive value striving for the common good. He placed democracy above all else, fearing the rise of fascism and Stalinism, which were re-emerging in Europe on the eve of the World Wars.
It also reveals how these reforms failed to withstand the ambitions of successive U.S. administrations. Moreover, Dewey’s pragmatism contained inherent limitations and contradictions from its inception. Over the following decades, utilitarian values became increasingly dominant, with contemporary American thinkers acknowledging a deep chasm between the power of the United States and the legitimate demands of its citizens for basic human rights.
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